Introduction to Public Speaking Week 3 Lecture
Chapters 5-6 Outline
In Week 3, were looking carefully at the role that external research
plays in the speech development process. Public speaking is inherently
personal, so it might come as a surprise that your words arent
enough in a speech. Effective public
speakers pull in external research, as it helps them further develop their
claims and shows the audience that the speaker has done their due diligence to
pull together an argument that is sound, logical, ethical, and correct. Chapter
5 builds upon last weeks readings, and focuses on the methods for adapting
precisely to the audience during a speech, by demonstrating the relevance of
your topic, acknowledging initial audience disposition toward your topic,
establishing common ground, gaining credibility, ensuring information
comprehension and retention, and managing language and cultural differences. In
chapter 6, we divide the research process into three main sections. This
chapter navigates the critical steps in the location, retrieval, and evaluation
of both print and web-based information and their sources. The final section
focuses on recording researched information, and addresses the importance of
verbally citing sources.
Each week, you should actively review the readings. To assist in your
retention, in these weekly written lectures you can find both an outline of the
chapter and glossary of key terms. These are included to help you as you read
the chapters. Use the outlines as a mechanism to take notesfill in the gaps,
make connections to your personal life, and reflect on your growth.
CHAPTER
FIVE OUTLINE
Introduction (p. 79): Audience
adaptationthe process of tailoring your speechs information to the needs,
interests, and expectations of your listenersplays a critical role in the
speech planning process. After dealing with issues of relevance, comprehension,
credibility, audience attitudes, and cultural and linguistic differences, a
speaker is able to generate a plan of adaptation, which will serve as the
blueprint for speech construction.
I.
Initial audience disposition: the knowledge and opinions listeners have
about your topic before they hear you speak (p. 79).
A. Adapting to the initial audience disposition
means creating a speech that takes into account how much audience members
already know about your topic and
what their attitudes are toward it.
B.
During
speech preparation, choose specific supporting material with these initial attitudes in mind.
II.
Common ground: the perception that you are knowledgeable,
trustworthy, and personable (p. 80).
A.
Use personal pronouns: we, us, and our.
1.
Personal
pronouns establish common ground.
2.
By
using us instead of people, the speaker includes the audience members and thus gives them a stake in listening to
what follows.
B.
Ask rhetorical questions that stimulate a
mental response rather than an actual spoken response on the part of the audience
1.
Rhetorical
questions establish common ground because they
stimulate a shared response among audience members.
2.
They are often used in speech introductions but can also be
effective as transitions and in other parts of the speech.
C.
Draw
from common experiences: share personal stories and experiences.
III.
Relevance: adapting information in ways that help
audience members realize its
importance to them (p. 81).
A. First, emphasize the timeliness of a topic by demonstrating that it is useful to the audience at present, or
will be in the near future.
B. Second, emphasize the proximity of the topic by explaining its relevance to listeners
personal life space.
C. Third, emphasize personal impact of your
topicits potential for serious physical, economic, or
psychological impact on audience members.
IV. Speaker credibility:
the perception of a speaker as knowledgeable,
trustworthy, and personable (p. 82).
A. Articulate knowledge and expertise. The audiences assessment of your
knowledge and expertise depends on how well you convince them that you are qualified to speak on the topic.
1.
You can
establish your expertise directly by disclosing your experience with your topic, including formal education, special
study, demonstrated skill, and your track record.
2.
Audience
members can also assess your expertise through indirect means, such as how well
prepared you seem and how confident and
fluent you are.
B. Convey trustworthiness,
the extent to which the audience can believe that what you say is accurate,
true, and in their best interests.
1.
Consider
how to demonstrate that you are honest, industrious,
dependable, and ethical.
2.
How
trustworthy you appear will also depend on how the audience views your motives.
C. Display personableness, the extent to
which you convey a pleasing personality
1.
Manage
first impressions by dressing appropriately for the audience and occasion, speaking well, smiling, and carrying
yourself well.
2.
Use
appropriate humor to demonstrate personableness.
V.
Information
comprehension and retention: adapting information so that it is easier for audience members to follow and
retain (p. 84).
A.
Appeal
to diverse learning styles, a persons preferred way of
receiving information, so that audience members with different learning
styles can comprehend the
information. Consider presenting new information in ways that appeal to
watching and feeling and doing and thinking.
B.
Orient
the audience with transitions, a
sentence or two that summarizes one main point and introduces another, to avoid
confusing listeners.
C.
Choose
specific and familiar language to make sure your listeners understand the meaning you intend.
1.
Specific
words clear up the confusion caused by general words by narrowing the focus in some
way.
2. Avoid jargon and slang terms unless:
a. You define them clearly the first time you
use them; and
b. They are central to your speech goal.
D.
Use
vivid language and examples because they help audience members understand and remember abstract, complex, and novel material.
E.
Comparing
unfamiliar ideas with familiar ones is an easy way to adapt your material to your audience. You will
want to identify places where you can use adaptive comparisons.
VI.
Language
and cultural differences: taking into consideration variations in speech
practice and perceived effectiveness when addressing an audience composed of people from ethnic and language groups
other than your own (p. 88).
A.
Work to
be understood when speaking in your second language.
1.
When
the language spoken by the audience is different from the speakers native
language, audience members may have difficulty
understanding what the speaker is saying due to accents, mispronounced words,
inappropriate words, or misused idioms.
a. To help the audience, speakers can speak
more slowly and articulate their words as much as possible to give audience
members time to adjust their ear to more easily process what the speaker is saying.
b. Practicing in front of friends and
associates who are native speakers is one of the best ways to improve
second-language speaking.
2.
The
more you practice speaking the language, the more comfortable you will become with it and with your ability to relate
to audience members.
B.
Choose culturally appropriate supporting material.
1.
A good
speaker will learn as much as possible about the culture of audience members,
in order to develop the material in a way that is meaningful to them. This may
mean conducting additional research.
2.
A
speaker may need to elaborate on ideas that would be self- explanatory in your
own culture.
VII.
Forming
a specific audience adaptation plan by identifying the challenges presented by the audience and planning how to meet
them (p. 88). The adaptation plan should answer the following questions:
A.
What is
my audiences initial disposition toward my topic?
B.
What
common ground do my audience members share with one another and with me?
C.
How
relevant will the audience find this material?
D.
What
can I do to enhance my credibility?
E.
How can
I make it easier for my audience members to comprehend and remember the information?
F.
What
language or cultural differences do my audience members have with one another
and with me?
CHAPTER
SIX OUTLINE
Introduction
(p. 93): Obtaining the necessary material used in speech construction requires
three key elements: locating and evaluating a variety of information types and
sources, identifying and selecting relevant information, and citing key sources
appropriately.
I.
Locate
and evaluate information sources (p. 93).
A. Personal knowledge and experience.
1.
By
selecting a familiar topic, a speaker can rely on personal examples and experiences in the speech.
2.
Sharing
your personal knowledge and experience can also bolster your credibility if you share your credentials your experiences or education that qualifies you to
speak with authority on a specific subject.
B. Secondary
research: the process of
locating information that has been discovered by other people.
1.
Locate
sources by searching the Internet, online libraries and databases, blogs, online social networks, and at a local library.
2.
Types
of secondary sources.
a.
Encyclopedias
can serve as a good starting point, but because they only provide overviews,
they should never be the only source.
b.
Books:
if the topic has been around for more than six
months, there are likely to be books written on the subject.
c.
Articles,
which may contain more current or highly specialized
information on your topic than a book would, are published in periodicalsmagazines and journals that
appear at regular intervals.
d.
News
media are excellent sources of facts about and interpretations of both
contemporary and historical issues, but most writers of news media articles are
journalists who are not experts on the topics they write about.
e.
Statistical
sources present numerical information on a wide
variety of subjects.
f.
Biographies
give accounts of a persons life, from thumbnail sketches to reasonably
complete essays.
g.
Quotation
books and websites can provide quotations that can be provocative as well as informative.
h.
Government
documents may provide useful information if
your topic is related to public policy.
3.
Skimming
to determine source value. Skimming is
a method of rapidly going through a work to determine what is covered and how.
a.
Assess
whether an article really presents information on the exact area of the topic you are exploring and whether it
contains any documented statistics, examples, or quotable opinions.
b.
Read
the abstracta short paragraph
summarizing the research findings.
4.
Evaluating
sources to determine their accuracy, reliability, and validity. There are four criteria to use:
a.
Authority:
test the expertise of a resources author and/or the reputation of the
publishing or sponsoring organization.
b.
Objectivity:
be wary of information that is overly slanted.
c.
Currency:
newer information is more accurate than older.
d.
Relevance:
relevant information is directly related to the topic
and supports your main points, making your speech easier to follow and understand.
C. Primary research: the process of conducting
your own study in the real world to acquire the information you need. It is
much more labor intensive and time
consuming than secondary research.
1.
Fieldwork observations: also known as ethnography, go into the field to observe specific behaviors and
take notes on your observations.
2.
Surveys: a canvassing of people in order to get information about their ideas and opinions, which are then analyzed for trends.
3.
Interviews: planned, structured conversations where one
person asks questions and another
answers them.
a.
Selecting
the best person who has expertise in the topic area and can provide quality information.
b.
Preparing
the interview protocol, the list of
questions you plan to ask.
i.
Primary questions are the lead-in questions about one of the
major topics of the interview, typically related to the main points for the speech.
ii.
Secondary questions are follow-up questions designed to probe the answers given to primary questions.
iii.
Open questions are broad-based questions that allow freedom
regarding what specific information or opinions the interviewee may provide.
iv.
Closed questions are narrowly focused and require very brief answers.
v.
Neutral questions are phrased in a way that does not direct a persons answers.
vi.
Leading questions are phrased in a way that suggests the interviewer has a preferred answer.
c.
Conducting
the interview.
i.
Dress
professionally to show you respect the interviewees
time.
ii.
Be prompt.
iii.
Be
courteous. Begin by introducing yourself and the purpose for the interview. Thank the person for his or her
time. Respect what the person says regardless of what you may think of the answer.
iv.
Ask for
permission to record. If the interviewee says
no, respect their wishes and take careful notes.
v.
Listen carefully.
vi.
Keep
the interview moving.
vii.
Monitor
your nonverbal reactions to make sure that they are in keeping with the tone you want to communicate.
viii.
Get permission
to quote.
ix.
Confirm
credentials.
x.
End on time.
xi.
Thank
the interviewee.
d.
Processing
the interview. As soon as possible after the
interview, review any notes and make individual note cards (or transcribe) the information that will
be included in the speech.
i.
Original
artifact or document examination. If the information you need has not been published, it may exist in an original
unpublished source, such as an ancient manuscript, a diary, personal correspondence, or company files.
ii.
Experiments:
you can design a study to test a hypothesis you have and then report the
results of your experiment in your speech.
II. Select relevant information (p. 103).
A.
Factual statements: those statements that can
be verified.
1.
Statistics: numerical
facts.
a.
Use
only statistics you can verify as reliable and
valid.
b.
Use
only recent statistics so your audience will not be misled.
c.
Use
statistics comparatively.
d.
Use
statistics sparingly.
e.
Display
statistics visually.
f.
Remember
that statistics are biased.
2.
Examples: specific instances that illustrate or explain a general factual statement.
a.
They
provide concrete details that make a general
statement meaningful to the audience.
b.
You may
also use hypothetical examplesspecific
illustrations based on reflections about future events.
c.
When
using examples, make sure they are clear, they are representative, and use at
least one to support every generalization.
3.
Definitions: a statement that clarifies the meaning of
a word of phrase.
a.
Definitions
clarify the meaning of terminology that is
specialized, technical, or otherwise likely to be unfamiliar to the audience.
b.
Definitions
clarify words and terms that have more than
one meaning and might be misconstrued.
c.
Definitions
clarify your stance on a subject.
B.
Expert opinions: interpretations and judgments made by
authorities in a particular subject area.
1.
An expert is someone who has mastered a
specific subject, usually through long-term study, and is
recognized by other people in the field
as being a knowledgeable and trustworthy authority.
2.
When
you use expert opinions in your speech, you should always cite the credentials of the expert.
C.
Elaborations:
factual information and expert opinions can be elaborated upon through anecdotes and
narratives, comparisons and contrasts, or quotations.
1.
Anecdotes
and narratives help capture the audiences attention.
a.
Anecdotes are brief, often amusing stories.
b.
Narratives are accounts, personal experiences, tales,
or lengthier stories.
2.
Comparisons
and contrasts.
a.
Comparisons illuminate a point by showing similarities.
They can be literal or figurative.
1. Literal comparisons show similarities of
real things.
2. Figurative comparisons express one thing in terms
a.
normally denoting another.
b.
Contrasts highlight differences.
3. Quotations
that make a point in a
clear and vivid way. When using a direct quotation, you need to
verbally acknowledge the person it came
from to prevent plagiarismthe
unethical act of representing another persons work as your own.
D.
Drawing
information from a variety of cultural perspectives. How we perceive facts and what opinions we hold are influenced by our cultural
background; therefore, it is important to draw information from
culturally diverse perspectives by seeking sources that have differing cultural
orientations and by interviewing experts with diverse cultural backgrounds.
III. Record information and sources (p. 108).
A.
Annotated
bibliography: a preliminary record of the relevant sources you find pertaining to your topic.
1.
This would
include a short summary of the information in your sources and how it might be used in
your speech.
2.
A good
annotated bibliography includes:
a.
Complete
citation for each source using appropriate style.
b.
A
sentence or two summarizing pertinent information.
c.
A
sentence or two explaining how information supports your speech.
d.
Any
direct quotations you might wish to use.
B.
Research
cards: individual index cards or electronic facsimiles that identify the following:
1.
One
piece of information relevant to your speech.
2.
A key
word or theme the information represents.
3.
Bibliographic
data identifying.
IV. Cite sources (p. 109).
A.
You
need to acknowledge the sources of your ideas and statements.
B.
Citing
sources helps the audience evaluate the content and also adds to your
credibility
C.
You
must provide oral footnotesreference to an original sourceat the point in the
speech where information from that source is presented.
GLOSSARY OF KEY TERMS
common ground: the
perception of a speaker as knowledgeable, trustworthy, and personable
credibility: the perception of a speaker as
knowledgeable, trustworthy, and personable
initial audience disposition: the knowledge and opinions listeners have
about your topic before they hear you speak
learning
style: a persons preferred
way of receiving information
personableness: the extent to which you project a pleasing
personality
personal pronouns: we, us, and ourpronouns that directly
link the speaker to members of the audience
proximity: the relevance of information to the
listeners personal space
relevance: adapting information in ways that help
audience members realize its importance to them
rhetorical questions: questions phrased to stimulate a mental
response from the audience
timeliness: showing how information is useful now or in
the near future
trustworthiness: the extent to which the audience can believe
that what you say is accurate, true, and in their best interests
abstract: a short paragraph summarizing the research
findings
accurate sources: attempt to present unbiased information and often include a balanced
discussion of controversial topics
anecdotes: brief, often amusing stories
annotated
bibliography: a preliminary
record of the relevant sources
blogs: websites that provide a forum for the personal viewpoints of their
author
closed questions: narrowly focused questions that require only
very brief answers
comparison: illuminate a point by showing similarities
contrast: illuminate a point by highlighting differences
credentials: experiences or education that qualifies a presenter to speak with
authority on a specific subject
definition: a statement that clarifies the meaning of a
word or phrase
ethnography: a form of primary research based on
fieldwork observations
evidence: any information that clarifies, explains, or otherwise adds depth or
breadth to a topic
examples: specific instances that illustrate or
explain a general factual statement
expert: a person recognized as having mastered a
specific subject
expert opinions: interpretations and judgments made by
authorities in particular subject areas
factual
statements: information
that can be verified
hypothesis: an educated guess about a cause-and-effect relationship between two or
more things
hypothetical
examples: specific
instances based on reflections about future events
interview: a highly structured conversation where one person asks questions and
another answers them
interview
protocol: the list of
questions to be asked
leading
questions: questions
phrased in a way that suggests the interviewer has a preferred answer
narratives: accounts, personal experiences, tales, or
lengthier stories
neutral
questions: questions
phrased in a way that does not direct a persons answers
online
social networks: websites
where communities of people interact with one another
open
questions: broad-based
queries
oral
footnote: reference to an
original source, made at the point in the speech where information from that
source is presented
periodicals: magazines and journals published at regular
intervals
plagiarism: the unethical act of representing another
persons work as your own by failing to credit the source
primary
questions: introductory
questions about each major interview topic
primary
research: collecting data
about a topic directly from the real world
rapport-building
questions: nonthreatening
questions designed to put the interviewee at ease and demonstrate respect
reliable
sources: have a history of
presenting valid and accurate information
research
cards: individual index
cards or electronic facsimiles identifying a piece of information, the key word
or theme it represents, and its bibliographic data
secondary
questions: follow-up
questions designed to probe the answers given to primary questions
secondary research: locating information that has been discovered
by other people
skimming: rapidly going through a work to determine what is covered and how
stance: an authors attitude, perspective, or viewpoint on a topic
statistics: numerical facts
transcribe: word-for-word translation into written
form of the interview
valid
sources: report factual
information that can be counted on to be true
