Introduction to Public Speaking – Week 2 Lecture

Chapters 3-4 Outline

Because listening is an essential skill for effective communication, Chapter 3 offers strategies for improvement in the understanding and retention of speech material, through effective listening and attention. Critical analysis and constructive feedback are discussed in detail. We go one step further in chapter 4, exploring the steps to effective speech preparation: identifying topics and the rhetorical situation, understanding ethical use of audience data, and developing a specific speech goal. Although we have to discuss each task separately, in practice they overlap and can be completed in a different order.

CHAPTER 3 OUTLINE

Introduction (p. 44): This chapter addresses the critical importance of listening on the speech process and the strategies for its improvement.

I. What is listening? (p. 44)

A. Listening is the process of receiving, constructing meaning from, and responding to messages.

B. Listening consists of complex affective, cognitive, and behavioral processes.

1. Affective processes motivate us to attend to a message.

2. Cognitive processes include understanding and interpreting its meaning.

3. Behavioral processes are related to responding with verbal and nonverbal feedback.

C. The type of listening we engage in varies based on the situation.

1. In appreciative listening, the goal is simply to enjoy the thoughts and experiences of others.

2. In discriminative listening, the goal is to understand the speaker’s meaning conveyed in other ways than the words themselves.

3. In comprehensive listening, the goal is to understand, remember, and recall what has been said.

4. In empathic listening, the goal is to be a sounding board to help a friend sort through feelings.

5. In critical listening, the goal is to evaluate the worth of a message.

II. Listening challenges (p. 45).

A. Listening apprehension is the anxiety we feel about listening and tends to increase when we are concerned about how the message may affect us psychologically.

B. Listening style is our favored and usually unconscious approach to listening.

1. Content-orientated listeners focus on and evaluate the facts and evidence.

2. People-orientated listeners focus on the feelings the speakers may have about what they are saying.

3. Action-orientated listeners focus on the ultimate point the speaker is trying to make.

4. Time-orientated listeners prefer brief and hurried conversations.

C. Processing approach: people tend to listen in one of two ways based on the rhetorical situation:

1. Passively listening is a habitual and unconscious process.

2. Actively listening is deliberate and conscious attention, remembering, and responding to messages.

III. Active listening strategies (p. 47).

A. Attending to the speech: intentionally perceiving and focusing on the message (p. 47).

1. Get physically ready to listen. Turn off electronic devices, alter posture, sit upright, lean forward, make eye contact, and stop any random movements.

2. Resist mental distraction. Focus attention on what is being said by blocking out miscellaneous thoughts.

3. Hear the speaker out.

a. Instead of tuning out or getting ready to interrupt, work that much harder to listen objectively, in order to fully understand the speaker’s position.

b. Likewise, if a speaker uses offensive language, don’t be distracted, but focus on what is being said.

4. Find personal relevance.

a. As motivation, ask why and how the information might be beneficial in improving some aspect of your life.

b. Identifying benefits can help motivate the three previous behaviors.

B. Understanding can help us accurately interpret a message—utilizing four strategies that can improve our listening to understand (p. 48).

1. Identify goal and main points. The speaker’s organization helps to establish a framework for understanding and remembering.

2. Ask questions. Identify key aspects for clarification and to obtain additional details.

3. Silently paraphrase. Rather than simply repeating what has been said, use paraphrase to put into your own words the meaning you have assigned to a message.

4. Observe nonverbal cues. Notice where and how the speaker is attempting to use tone of voice, facial expressions, and gestures to emphasize important points.

C. Remembering speech information: utilizing three techniques to better retain and recall speech content (p. 49).

1. Repeat the information. Repetition promotes long-term memory of information.

2. Construct mnemonics. This device associates a special word or short statement with new and longer information.

3. Take notes. This method helps you take an active role in the listening process.

D. Evaluating a speech. By critically analyzing what is said, you can determine its truthfulness, utility, and trustworthiness (p. 49).

1. Separate facts from inferences.

2. Recognize the difference between verifiable observations and opinions.

E. Responding means providing feedback (p. 49).

1. Feedback usually occurs nonverbally through behaviors, such as smiling, nodding, and applauding after the speaker finishes in some culture.

2. A formal written evaluation or critique is based on your critical analysis of how well the speech and speaker performed on specific key criteria.

IV. Constructive critiques (p. 50).

A. A constructive critique comprises statements that evaluate content, structure, and delivery.

B. Guidelines for constructive critique:

1. Communicate specific observations.

2. Begin with observations about what a speaker did effectively or well before turning to specific suggestions for improvement.

3. Follow observation statements with explanations about how and why the observed behavior affected the speech.

4. Phrase critiques so that it is clear they reflect your personal perception, not “truth.”

C. Elements of constructive critiques:

1. Comments on content focus on an analysis of the speaker’s goal, main points, and supporting material used to develop them.

2. Comments on structure may focus on both the overall structure (macrostructure) and wording (microstructure) of the speech.

3. Comments on delivery focus on how the speaker’s use of voice and body.

4. A speaker can also help himself or herself out by completing a self-critique after each speech as a form of cognitive restructuring that can help reduce anxiety.

CHAPTER 4 OUTLINE

Introduction (p. 57): This chapter describes the steps that help speakers determine a specific speech goal that is adapted to the rhetorical situation.

I. Because the audience is a crucial component of the rhetorical situation, effective speech goals are based on audience analysis.

A. Audience analysis: the study of the intended audience for your speech.

B. Audience adaptation: the process of tailoring a speech’s information to the needs, interests, and expectations of your listeners.

II. Brainstorm and concept map for potential speech subjects and topics (p. 58).

A. Speech topics should come from subject areas in which we already have some knowledge and interest.

1. Subject: a broad area of expertise, such as movies, cognitive psychology, computer technology, or the Middle East.

2. Topic: a narrow, specific aspect of a subject.

B. Subjects.

1. You can identify potential subjects for your speeches by listing those areas that:

a. interest you and

b. you know something about.

2. These areas could include your area of study, careers that interest you, hobbies and leisure activities, and special interests or skills.

C. Brainstorming, concept mapping, and Internet searches.

1. Brainstorming: an uncritical, nonevaluative process of generating associated ideas.

2. When you brainstorm, you list as many ideas as you can without evaluating them.

3. It is easier to select a topic from a list, than to come up with one out of the blue.

4. Concept mapping: A visual means of exploring connections between a subject and related ideas.

5. Generated by asking yourself questions about your subject, focusing on who, what, where, when, and how.

6. An Internet search makes an unlimited supply of information available, so setting parameters on time and number of topics is important.

III. Analyze the rhetorical situation (p. 60).

A. Analyze your audience. Because speeches are presented to a particular audience, you need to understand who will be in your prospective audience.

1. Demographic data can include: age, education level, sex, occupation, socioeconomic status, race, ethnicity, religion, geographic uniqueness, and fist language.

2. Subject-related audience data.

a. Audience knowledge: it is important that you choose a topic geared to the background knowledge you can expect audience members to have.

b. Audience interest: you will need to choose a topic that can capture their interest or work hard as you develop your speech to overcome their disinterest.

c. Audience attitude toward the subject.

i. You can determine the audience’s attitudes toward your subject by surveying them, extrapolating opinion poll results for your audience, or estimating the audience’s attitudes from the demographic information collected.

ii. Once you understand your audience’s attitude toward your subject, you can choose a topic that will allow you to influence rather than alienate the audience.

d. Audience perception toward you as a speaker.

i. Credibility: the perception that you are knowledgeable, trustworthy, and personable.

ii. You will want to choose a topic that allows the audience to recognize you as a subject-matter expert.

B. Data-gathering methods.

1. You can collect data through surveys. It is the most direct way to collect audience data. A survey is a questionnaire designed to gather information directly from people.

a. Two-sided items: survey items that force the respondent to choose between two answers, such as yes/no, for/against, or pro/con.

b. Multiple-response items: survey items that give the respondent several alternative answers from which to choose.

c. Scaled items: survey items that measure the direction and/or intensity of an audience member’s feeling or attitude toward something.

d. Open-ended items: survey items that encourage respondents to elaborate on their opinions without forcing them to answer in a predetermined way.

2. You can gather data through informal observation.

3. You can gather data by questioning the person who invited you to speak. Ask your contact person to answer the demographic questions.

4. You can make educated guesses about audience demographics and attitudes based on such indirect information as the general makeup of the specific community from which group members come, or the kinds of people who are likely to attend the event or occasion.

C. Ethical use of audience data.

1. To demonstrate respect for your audience, you will want to avoid making inappropriate or inaccurate assumptions based on demographic or subject-related information you have collected.

2. Two potential pitfalls to avoid are:

a. Marginalizing: the practice of ignoring the values, needs, and interests of some audience members, leaving them feeling excluded from the rhetorical situation.

b. Stereotyping: the assumption that all members of a group have similar knowledge, behaviors, or beliefs simply because they belong to the group.

3. You can minimize your chances of marginalizing or stereotyping by recognizing and acknowledging the audience diversity, the range of demographic and subject-related differences represented in an audience.

D. Analyze the occasion (p. 66).

1. Essentially the setting, the occasion includes the expected purpose and location.

a. What is the intended purpose (exigence) for the speech? Whether the speech assignment is defined by purpose or by subject, your topic should reflect the nature of that assignment.

b. What is the expected length? You will want to choose a topic that is narrow enough to be accomplished in the time allotted.

c. Where will the speech be given?

d. When will the speech be given?

e. What equipment is necessary and available?

2. Consider the factors that may affect your presentation.

IV. Select a topic (p. 71).

A. You will want to select a topic that is appropriate for your audience members and the occasion. Compare each topic to your audience profile.

B. Don’t forget to consider the occasion.

V. Write a speech goal statement (p. 72).

A. General and specific speech goals.

1. General goal: the overall intent of the speech.

a. Most speeches intend to entertain, inform, or persuade; each type of speech may include elements of other types.

b. The general goal is generally dictated by the occasion.

2. Specific goal: a single statement that identifies the exact response the speaker wants from the audience.

B. Phrasing a specific speech goal statement.

1. Write a draft of your speech goal using a complete sentence that specifies the type of response you want from the audience.

2. Make sure that the goal statement contains only one idea.

3. Revise the statement until it articulates the precise focus of your speech tailored to the audience.

GLOSSARY OF KEY TERMS

action-oriented listeners: focus on the ultimate point the speaker is trying to make

active listening: the deliberate and conscious process of attending to, understanding, remembering, evaluating, and responding to messages

attending: process of intentionally perceiving and focusing on a message

constructive critique: an evaluative response that identifies what was effective and what could be improved in a speech

content-oriented listeners: focus on and evaluate the facts and evidence

evaluating: critically analyzing the message

facts: statements whose accuracy can be verified as true

hearing: the physiological process that occurs when the brain detects sound waves

inferences: assertions based on the facts presented

listening: the cognitive process of receiving, attending to, constructing meaning from, and responding to messages

listening apprehension: the anxiety we feel about listening

listening style: the favored and usually unconscious approach to listening

mnemonic device: associates a special word or very short statement with new and longer information

paraphrasing: putting a message into your own words

passive listening: the habitual and unconscious process of receiving messages

people-oriented listeners: focus on the feelings the speakers may have about what they are saying

question: a statement designed to clarify information or get additional details

remembering: retaining and recalling information at a later time

repetition: restating words, phrases, or sentences for emphasis

responding: providing feedback to a speaker

time-oriented listeners: prefer brief and hurried conversations

understanding: accurately interpreting a message

audience adaptation: the process of tailoring a speech to the needs, interests, and expectations of your listeners

audience analysis: the study of the intended audience for your speech

audience diversity: the range of demographic and subject-related differences represented in an audience

brainstorming: an uncritical, nonevaluative process of generating associated ideas

concept mapping: a visual means of exploring connections between a subject and related ideas

credibility: the perception of a speaker as knowledgeable, trustworthy, and personable

general goal: the overall intent of the speech

Internet search: a way to generate a variety of potential topic ideas on a subject area

marginalizing: ignoring the values, needs, and interests of some audience members, leaving them feeling excluded

multiple-response items: survey items that give respondents several alternative answers from which to choose

occasion: the expected purpose of and setting (location) for the speech

open-ended items: survey items that encourage respondents to elaborate on their opinions without forcing them to answer in a predetermined way

scaled items: survey items that measure the direction and/or intensity of an audience member’s feeling or attitude toward something

specific goal: a single statement that identifies the exact response the speaker wants from the audience

stereotyping: assuming all members of a group have similar knowledge, behaviors, or beliefs simply because they belong to that group

subject: a broad area of knowledge

survey: a canvassing of people designed to get information about their ideas and opinions about a specific topic

topic: a narrow aspect of a subject

two-sided items: survey items that force respondent to choose between two answers